Photon Initiated Marxed Modulators

ABSTRACT

The features of this invention allow construction and operation of a variety of high voltage, high repetition rated pulse generators of the Marx type that are switched with photon initiated semiconductor switches. The Photon Initiated Switches can be constructed with bulk materials or in layered devices such as thyristors. Variations on the invention permit the formation of nearly rectangular, flat-topped, high voltage pulses. Although the invention has been described in detail with particular reference to these preferred embodiments, other embodiments can achieve the same results without departing from the scope of the invention. Variations and modifications of the present invention will be obvious to those skilled in the art and it is intended to cover in the appended claims all such modifications and equivalents. The entire disclosures of all references, applications, patents, and publications cited above are hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention (Technical Field)

The present invention relates primarily to the circuit topology invented by Erwin Marx in 1923; secondarily to circuit topologies that synthesize nearly rectangular, flat-topped pulses; and finally to optically triggered semiconductor switches.

The Marx Generator principle works by charging capacitive energy storage elements (electrostatic energy stores) in parallel and discharging them in series through a set of switches. Each capacitor and switch is considered to be a “stage”. The output voltage at the terminus of the Marx Generator is equal to the charge voltage times the number of stages in the Marx. This circuit is analogous to putting flashlight batteries in series to increase the voltage across the bulb; however it typically works at high voltages. For example, a 100 stage Marx Generator that is charged to 10 kV per stage can produce 1,000 kV at the load. Likewise, a 10 stage Marx that is charged to 100 kV per stage will produce the same voltage at the load. Marx generators also contain sets of charge/isolation elements that permit charging of the energy storage capacitors from a low voltage power supply, but minimize the circulating energy losses during the pulse discharge.

The series switches in conventional Marx Generators are typically gas insulated spark gaps that are constructed of two principal electrodes and usually contain a subsidiary trigger electrode.

The term modulator is derived from a modulated signal, particularly those electrical signals supplied to drive physical apparatus such as radar sets, lasers, etc. The modulator produces a pulse train that has specific amplitude, pulse shape, duration and inter-pulse period. For example, a typical modulator may produce a series of 100,000 V, one (1) microsecond long flat-top pulses at a pulse repetition rate of 100 pulses per second (Hz). A modulator typically employs pulse forming networks that tailor the pulse to obtain specific voltages, impedances, pulse durations, rise-times, fall-times, and amplitude fidelity. Although most physical apparatus require pulses that are nominally trapezoidal in shape, some of these devices can be operated with a double exponential wave shape manifest to a simple Marx generator with capacitors for energy storage elements.

2. Background Art

Note that the following discussion is given for more complete background of the scientific principles and is not to be construed as an admission that such concepts are prior art for patentability determination purposes.

Pulse power systems, such as particle beam accelerators, fusion apparatus, lasers, high power microwave systems, etc.; require high voltage electrical pulses to function properly. These requirements are currently met with different circuit topologies selected according to the desired pulse shape parameters and repetition rate specifications. Three of the most common existing techniques include simple Marx generators, where double exponential pulse shapes are acceptable; Marx generators driving pulse forming lines where short, flat-topped pulses are required; and pulse forming networks in conjunction with pulse transformers for long duration, flat-topped pulses for systems operated at modest to high repetition rates, especially for long lifetimes.

Simple Marx generators using capacitive energy storage elements and spark gap switches have been able to satisfy many of the requirements for laboratory experiments, but are not suitable for reliable, long-life operation at high repetition rates, e.g., greater than a few tens of Hertz. Furthermore, the simple Marx generator produces a double exponential pulse shape that is not acceptable for many applications. Finally, the spark gaps limit the system reliability, repetition rate, and lifetime between maintenance cycles.

When relatively short flat topped pulses are required, Marx generators are frequently coupled with pulse forming lines (typically water filled co-axial cylinders) to generate rectangular pulses on the order of one hundred nanoseconds duration. However, a water pulse forming line would have to be over fifty feet long to produce a one microsecond pulse, making it unpractical for the long pulse parameter space. Moreover, systems using Marx generators and pulse forming lines require a high voltage output switch between the pulse forming line and the load. Since no existing high voltage output switch can operate reliably at high repetition rates for long life cycles, this topology is not practical for repetition rated devices. Marx spark gaps also limit reliability and lifetime.

Marx generators have also been built by replacing the capacitors with pulse forming networks to simultaneously multiply the voltage and shape the pulse. Such Marxed-PFN's (High Energy Density Pulsers) were fabricated by the Air Force Weapons Laboratory in Albuquerque, N.Mex. in the 1960's. Twenty, Five-section, 25 kV ceramic capacitor pulse forming networks were Marxed together with spark gaps to create single shot 250 kV, 70 ns flat-topped pulses into a 70 Ohm load.

Systems that require high voltage, long duration flat-topped pulses operated at high repetition rates have been satisfied by using circuits that incorporate Pulse Forming Networks with hydrogen thyratron switches and transformers to produce shaped pulses at high voltages. However the self inductance of these transformers typically prohibits fast risetimes for such systems, and the energy lost in the rise and fall portions of the pulse lead to inefficiencies.

Theodore F. Ewanizky, Jr. attempted to address the inability of the Marx generator to operate at repetition rates by substituting hydrogen thyratron switches in place of spark gaps to achieve greater pulse repetition rates and longer lifetimes; as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,375,594: “Thyratron Marx High Voltage Generator”. However, this circuit never attained popular acceptance, probably because it is difficult to implement the heater, reservoir, and trigger circuits at the various voltages consistent with a Marx generator. Additionally, the system cost would typically be very high because of the high cost of requisite hydrogen thyratrons and the ancillary equipment and hardware required to operate the tubes.

In U.S. Pat. No. 4,900,947: “Asynchronous Marx Generator Utilizing Photo-Conductive semiconductor Switches”, Maurice Weiner, et.al. employ sequential firing of bulk semi-conductor switches to achieve ultra-fast risetimes of less than one nanosecond. This process is effective principally because of the transmission line characteristics of the ultra-fast wave front, which inherently delays the pulse arrival time to each successive switch. Note reference to Levy, et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,577,114, and to patent application Ser. No. 111,746. “Typically these switches are blocks of bulk semi-insulating gallium arsenide with ohmic contacts at two ends. The carrier density of the gallium arsenide is substantially increased by irradiating it with a laser, thus creating a low resistance path between the ohmic contacts and closing the switch.”

The switches described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,154,477: “On-Board Laser-Triggered Multi-Layer Semiconductor Power Switch”, Douglas Weidenheimer, et.al., are representative of the types that may be utilized in this invention.

There is a need for a versatile, long life pulse generator that is capable of generating high voltage electrical pulses with a variety of pulse shapes and durations while operating at high repetition rates. Typical rise-times for these generators range from about one nanosecond to several hundred nanoseconds; while typical pulse durations range from less than 10 nanoseconds to as much as a few milliseconds.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION (DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION)

It is an object of this invention to provide an improved high voltage generator with long life, high repetition rate capabilities with minimal maintenance requirements.

It is another object of this invention to provide a repetition rated high voltage pulse generator with versatile pulse shaping capabilities.

It is a further object of this invention to provide a high voltage pulse generator with highly reliable photon initiated switches and photon triggering mechanism.

To achieve the foregoing objects, photoconductive (or photon initiated) semiconductor switches are used as the switching elements in each stage of the Marx generator; an optical source (or sources) are used to generate the photons; and the photons are delivered to the semi-conductor switches either directly from the optical source (or sources), or transmitted by fiber optic cables. Moreover, pulse forming networks can be substituted in place of the energy storage capacitors to generate versatile electrical pulse shapes at the load. Finally, additional passive electrical elements, such as inductors, capacitors, or resistors may be added at the output (high voltage) section of the Marx, across a few of the initial Marx stages at the input (low voltage) section of the Marx, or at the last section of each pulse forming network.

Other objects, advantages and novel features, and further scope of applicability of the present invention will be set forth in part in the detailed description to follow, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and form a part of the specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. The drawings are only for the purpose of illustrating a preferred embodiment of the invention and are not to be construed as limiting the invention. In the drawings:

FIG. 1 is a simplified circuit diagram of the present invention with capacitive energy storage elements connected in a bipolar charge configuration;

FIG. 2 is a simplified circuit diagram of the present invention (as shown in FIG. 1) with a Type A pulse forming network on the output of the Marx generator;

FIG. 3 is a simplified circuit diagram of the present invention (as shown in FIG. 1), with a first harmonic pulse shaping network at the input of the Marx generator;

FIG. 4 is a representative output voltage waveform for a compensated Photon Initiated Marx Generator similar to that shown in FIG. 3;

FIG. 5 is a schematic for a six stage Photon Initiated Marxed Pulse Forming Network with seven section, Type E PFN's;

FIG. 6 is a representative output voltage waveform for a multiple-stage Photon Initiated Marxed-PFN as depicted by the schematic shown in FIG. 5;

FIG. 7 is a possible mechanical configuration for a six stage Marxed-PFN;

FIG. 8 is a photograph of a prototype PFN interfaced to an photon initiated thyristor and resistive load cell;

FIG. 9 is an example of the un-tuned current waveform obtained from the circuit shown in FIG. 8;

FIG. 10 is a side view drawing of a 1 cm by 3 cm Photon Initiated Thyristor;

FIG. 11 is an end view drawing of a 1 cm by 3 cm Photon Initiated Thyristor showing the axial groove for the fiber optic cable;

FIG. 12 is a photograph of a 1 cm by 3 cm Photon Initiated Thyristor mounted into an insulating holder;

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Best Modes for Carrying Out the Invention

One preferred embodiment of the present invention is depicted in FIG. 1. The portion of the circuit commonly known as a Marx “Stage” is enclosed by the dashed lines. The inventive device can contain an arbitrary number of Marx Stages, denoted in FIG. 1 by the letter “N”. Each stage consists of an energy storage device, shown in FIG. 1 by capacitors C₁ through C_(N); a photon initiated (or controlled) semiconductor switch, shown in FIG. 1 by switches Sw₁ through Sw_(N); and two charge/isolation elements, shown in FIG. 1 by the positive side elements CHG₁+through CHG_(N)+; and by the negative side elements CHG₁-through CHG_(N)−. The capacitive energy storage elements may be replaced with Pulse Forming Networks to generate a flat-topped pulse on the load.

Operation of the inventive device has two phases: a charge phase and a discharge phase. The charge phase proceeds as follows: While all of the switches S₁ through S_(N), in FIG. 1, are in the open circuit condition; a power supply (or power supplies), denoted by reference number PS₁, charges the energy storage elements (or Pulse Forming Networks) denoted by C₁ through C_(N); (via the charge-isolation elements) to the pre-determined voltage, and holds the specified voltage at high precision until the discharge cycle is initiated to create an output pulse at the desired repetition rate. The power supply (or supplies) charge the energy storage elements in parallel through the charge/isolation elements, denoted by the positive side elements CHG₁+through CHG_(N)+; and by the negative side elements CHG₁-through CHG_(N)−, which can be passive elements such as resistors or inductors, or active elements, including diodes or either electrically or optically triggered semiconductor switches. The type of charge/isolation element is not important for single shot Marx generators, but for repetition rate systems, the energy dissipation during the charge and discharge cycles can result in low system efficacy. Hence, resistors are typically not a good choice for repetition rate systems. While inductors can be low loss devices during the charge cycle, inductance values sufficient to prevent recirculation losses during the discharge cycle can be difficult to obtain and may require magnetic materials. Moreover these elements can represent an undesirable inductive load for switching power supplies. This effect can be mitigated, however by using bifilar windings, which minimize the inductance seen by the power supply, but maintain high recirculation inductance during the discharge cycle.

After the charge cycle is complete, the discharge cycle (Marx “erection”) is initiated by triggering the semiconductor switches shown in FIG. 1, and denoted by reference numbers Sw₁ through Sw_(N). The switches can be triggered either simultaneously or in sequence by illuminating them with photons from an optical source (or sources). The photons are delivered to the semi-conductor switches either directly from the optical source (or sources), or transmitted by fiber optic cables that are fed by one or more photon sources. The photons create electron-hole pairs within the body of the semiconductor, thereby increasing the quantity of charge carriers and initiating current conduction. A variety of semiconductor materials may be used for the switch, including Silicon, Silicon-Carbide, Gallium-Nitrate, etc. Moreover the semiconductor switch may be either a homogeneous bulk material, or a multi-layer device, such as a five layer asymmetric thyristor. A small quantity of photons may be used to initiate current conduction, which may be sustained by self generated charge carriers (such as an optically triggered thyristor); or large quantities of photons may be rapidly supplied to the switch in order to generate sufficient quantities of charge carriers to support the entire switch conduction cycle. Following commencement of switch conduction, the electrostatic energy storage devices (denoted by C₁ through C_(N) in FIG. 1) that were charged in parallel to the power supply (reference PS₁) voltage (V₀), are connected in series by the switches, thereby multiplying the voltage to N*V₀ at the load element (reference Load₁), where N is the number of Marx stages. If pulse forming networks (PFN's) are substituted in place of capacitors (as shown by reference numbers C₁ through C_(N) in FIG. 1); then the output voltage across the load is decreased. The maximum efficiency and best pulse shape are obtained when the load element is predominately resistive and is equal to N times the characteristic impedance of the pulse forming networks. When this condition is met, the voltage across the resistive load is a single rectangular shape with a voltage equal to (N/2)*V₀, and the pulse duration is determined by the pulse forming network capacitor and inductor values. The photon initiated semiconductor switches may be installed in series, to increase the Marx stage voltage; in parallel, to increase the di/dt, peak current, or energy transfer capabilities of the system; or in a series/parallel configuration to simultaneously optimize the parameters. Resistive or capacitive elements may be installed to grade static or transient pulses across series connected switches, or to insure current sharing in parallel switches. The switches may be constructed of a variety of sizes and aspect ratios to optimize the switch performance to the discharge properties. For example, rectangular switches can yield inherently lower inductance circuits and are therefore advantageous when fast risetimes are required. More than one fiber or optical source may be used to illuminate each switch. Moreover, saturable magnetic cores may be installed in series with each switch (or switch stack) to delay the current surge until the plasma has spread throughout a larger volume of the switch body, thus enabling higher current and di/dt. Finally, the generator may be constructed of two or more parallel Marx generators in order to drive low impedance loads while staying within the capabilities of the optical switches.

There are also numerous ways of shaping the output pulse to obtain the desired voltage and current amplitudes and waveforms on the load without using Pulse Forming Networks. A Marx generator that uses capacitors to store the energy, naturally generates a double exponential wave shape across a predominately resistive load: where, the pulse risetime is typically dominated by a function of the erected Marx inductance divided by the load resistance, and the fall time is typically dominated by a function of the erected Marx capacitance times the load resistance. However, the Photon Initiated Marxed Modulators described herein, are capable of generating rectangular, flat-topped pulses by adding various pulse shaping components at either the output (high voltage), or input (ground side) of the Marx circuit. For example, a Type-A Pulse Forming Network, consisting of series connected sets of parallel connected capacitors and inductors can be installed at the output of the Marx as shown in FIG. 2. Each set of parallel capacitors and inductors, referenced by the dashed box in FIG. 2, represent one section of a Type-A PFN. Depending on the desired pulse shape on the load, there would typically be from three to five PFN sections installed at the output of the Marx generator. Alternatively, FIG. 3 demonstrates that one or more inductors may be installed in parallel with the first few Marx stages to generate a correction to the RC fall time nominally associated with a Marx generator with capacitive energy stores. Additional photon initiated switches (referenced by SW_(R)); and possibly resistors denoted by R11 may be installed in series with the inductors as shown in FIG. 3. The capacitor values (CR1 and CR2) for the Marx stage (or stages) associated with this pulse shaping correction circuit may be different than that of the remaining Marx stages; and the charge voltage amplitude and polarity may also be different than that applied to the remaining Marx stages. These circuits are typically designed to be odd harmonics of the desired fundamental frequency at the load. The switches (SW₁ and SW₂) associated with the Marx stages that are included in the pulse shape correction circuit may be fired earlier or later than the remaining Marx stage switches. If additional switches (SW_(R)) are installed in series with the inductors, the firing time of these switches may be optimized to obtain the desired pulse shape at the load. The voltage pulse can thereby be tailored to be flat, or to ramp up (or down) with a specific slope. The risetime of the pulse is still dominated by the erected Marx inductance of the Marx divided by the load resistance; but the pulse fall time can be adjusted by switch timing; selection of component (capacitors, inductors, and resistors) values; and charge voltage on the low end Marx capacitors. An additional switch may be installed in parallel with the harmonic inductor(s) (L11) to effectively crowbar the harmonic ringing circuit, thereby decreasing the pulse fall time.

Examples of possible embodiments of this invention are included as follows:

Example 1

The accelerating cavities for linear accelerators are frequently powered by radio frequency electromagnetic pulses that are produced by klystrons. This invention can satisfy the requirements of such klystrons: for example, a Photon Initiated Marxed-PFN pulse generator can produce low ripple 500 kV, 530 A, 1.6 microsecond flattop pulses with rise and fall times of less than 300 nanoseconds at repetition rates of at least 120 Hz by Marxing sixty, 15.7 Ohm PFN's via photon initiated thyristors. Six, Marxed-PFN's are shown in FIG. 4. The output voltage waveform into a dual klystron load for a twelve stage Photon Initiated Marxed-PFN is shown in FIG. 5. The photons required to trigger (and possibly sustain) the photon initiated switches for this configuration can be supplied in a variety of manners, such as a single Q-switched Nd:YAG laser that feeds a fiber optic bundle, thus providing photons to each of the sixty switches via one or more fiber optic cables. The fiber optic cables can be either the same length in order to trigger all of the switches simultaneously, or their lengths can be adjusted to sequentially trigger the switches in the Marx generator. The impedances of the PFN's can be modified slightly in sequential sets to further smooth the flattop portion of the pulse. FIG. 6 demonstrates a possible mechanical configuration for such a circuit. FIG. 6 shows only six Marx stages, but this is expandable to a much larger number of stages.

Example 2

Many High Power Microwave devices, such as Magnetically Insulated Line Oscillators (MILO's), Relativistic Magnetrons, Ubitrons, etc., require relatively flat-topped pulses. These devices range in impedance from approximately ten to one hundred Ohms and require pulse durations ranging from about 100 nanoseconds to more than 1 microsecond. Since these devices typically do not demand the extreme flat-topped pulses required by klystrons for linear accelerators, the waveforms can be generated by adding correction circuits to Marx generators with capacitor energy storage (as shown in FIG. 3), thereby reducing the component count manifest to the Marxed-PFN topology. An example of such a circuit, designed to drive a 500 kV, 200 ns flat-topped pulse into a ten Ohm MILO, is shown in FIG. 7, which is a manifestation of the basic circuit shown in FIG. 3. A typical waveform for the circuit shown in FIG. 7 is shown in FIG. 8. Numerous other extensions of the basic circuit concept are feasible.

Example 3

Present and future requirements for compact, lightweight, robust, rep-rate sources for High Power Microwave Directed Energy (DE) applications cannot be met with conventional components or pulsed power generator circuits. Switching and elimination of pulse transformers and/or water lines are crucial issues for these systems. Semiconductor switched, Marxed PFN circuits are potentially one of the best hopes for achieving a quantum leap in this arena as such devices could potentially eliminate the need for intermediate store water lines and their attendant ancillary support systems. Impulse radars are representative of one such potential application for these versatile pulse generators. No Pulse Forming Networks are required, as a simple L/R current rise and RC decay are well suited to this application. Required risetimes of less than 1 nanosecond and fall times of 4-10 nanoseconds can be achieved with this invention.

Example 4

For devices that require extreme flattop pulses, but can tolerate some energy loss, the basic circuits shown in FIGS. 1, 2 and 3 can be equipped with a high voltage metal oxide varistor stack connected between the high voltage output and the load. These varistors, which are commonly used by the electric utility sector for lightening protection, clip off voltages greater than their threshold voltage. Hence, they can be used to clamp the output voltage at a specified level, thus improving on the flat-top portion of the pulse. Varistors will not affect either the rise or fall portions of the pulse. Providing the pulse is relatively flat to start with, the energy lost in the varistors will be small compared to the energy delivered to the load. Varistors would typically not be used with a simple capacitor energy store Marx generator because the energy loss associated with flattening the double exponential pulse would be significant, and the pulse would still have a very long fall time, commensurate with the RC time constant of the Marx generator erected capacitance and load resistance. Further, varistors are non-linear devices whose impedance is a function of the current, making it impossible to obtain an extremely flat pulse from a capacitor energy store Marx generator equipped with a varistor stack.

The preceding examples can be repeated with similar success by substituting the generically or specifically described elements and/or operating conditions of this invention for those used in the preceding examples.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A test stand, comprising a single pulse forming Marx stage with an impedance of 16 Ohms was constructed to produce a rectangular 1.6 microsecond flattop pulse; manifest to a klystron drive application to produce the radio frequency energy required to power linear accelerators. The photon initiated semiconductor switch was designed for the following requirements: switched voltage: 17 kilovolts; current: 530 amps; risetime: <200 nanoseconds; charge transfer: ˜0.001 Coulombs/pulse; switched energy: 8 joules per pulse; jitter: <1 nanosecond; repetition rate: >120 pulses per second; pulse width (duration) 1.6 microseconds; and lifetime: ˜10⁹ pulses. These parameters were chosen because these are the requirements specified for klystron powered radio frequency linear accelerator applications. An existing Photon Initiated Thyristor was employed as the switch, and ceramic capacitors were used for the PFN energy storage elements. A single long solenoid type inductor was tapped with turns that resulted in the desired pulse shape. The PFN used seven Pulse Forming sections for these tests. Each section consisted of two parallel, 20 kV, 4 nF ceramic capacitors, to yield a section capacitance of 8 nF. The inductor was constructed by wrapping #10 solid copper wire around a 2.5″ diameter PVC pipe that had partial grooves cut by a lathe with a pitch of 5 turns per inch. The distance between section (capacitor) centers was 2.5″; hence there were ˜12.5 turns per section.

The completed PFN was interfaced with a quasi-symmetric thyristor with onboard laser diode illumination arrays at its anode and cathode surfaces; and terminated with a sixteen Ohm resistive load, as shown in FIG. 8. The photon initiated semiconductor switch was a ˜0.64 cm² active area silicon device. The switch held off the full design voltage of 16.7 kV, and conducted the full current, di/dt, and action commensurate with a full power Marxed-PFN stage. Samples of the current waveform are shown in FIG. 9, demonstrating a two hundred nanosecond (200 ns) risetime to approximately five hundred and thirty (530) amps, and a relatively flattop voltage pulse with a duration of approximately 1.6 microseconds. The continuous repetition rate PFN discharge testing was limited to five pulses per second (5 pps) due to power supply limitations in the present test bed.

Following the full action switch demonstration, the Test Stand was reconfigured to demonstrate the switch recovery capability at one hundred and twenty (120) Hertz. The PFN was removed and replaced with a capacitor to reduce the action. The holdoff voltage remained the same, the current and di/dt were increased significantly, and the action was decreased significantly—to minimize heat buildup in the switch. The device was operated at one hundred and twenty (120) Hertz for a thirty second burst in order to document switch recovery and holdoff. The one hundred and twenty (120) Hertz demonstration was conducted with reduced charge transfer action in order to stay within the present power limitations for the test bed. The test was significant, however, because it demonstrated recovery to full blocking voltage in a representative inter-pulse interval commensurate with one hundred and twenty (120) Hertz operation. These switches have a minority carrier lifetime of between sixty (60) and one hundred (100) microseconds; which scales to repetitive operation beyond one thousand (1000) Hertz.

A second prototype photon initiated thyristor switch with a 1 cm by 3 cm cross-section, as shown in FIG. 10, FIG. 11, and FIG. 12 was illuminated with photons from a Nd:YAG laser delivered by a fiber optic cable. The fiber optic cable coating was selectively removed to permit the light to escape axially along the length of the switch.

CONCLUSION

The features of this invention allow construction and operation of a variety of high voltage, high repetition rate pulse generators of the Marx type that are switched with photon initiated semiconductor switches. These photon initiated semi-conductor switches can be constructed with bulk materials or in layered devices such as thyristors. Variations on the invention permit the formation of nearly rectangular, flat-topped, high voltage pulses. Although the invention has been described in detail with particular reference to these preferred embodiments, other embodiments can achieve the same or nearly identical results without departing from the scope of the invention. Variations and modifications of the present invention will be obvious to those skilled in the art and it is intended to cover in the appended claims all such modifications and equivalents. The entire disclosures of all references, applications, patents, and publications cited above are hereby incorporated by reference. 

1. A high voltage, repetition rate pulse generator of the Marx type comprising: a plurality of Marx stages comprising: a plurality of electrostatic energy storage elements connected in parallel; a plurality of photon initiated semiconductor switches connected in series with said electrostatic energy storage elements; a plurality of charge/isolation elements; a means of producing photons; a means of delivering said photons to each of said photon initiated semiconductor switches; a means of illuminating said photon initiated semiconductor switches; a means of charging said electrostatic energy storage elements; a means of shaping the output voltage waveform characteristics.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein said electrostatic energy storage elements associated with each Marx stage are pulse forming networks; wherein, said pulse forming networks are comprised of capacitive energy storage elements and inductors connected as line type pulse forming networks; wherein, said inductors may utilize magnetic materials to increase their value; wherein, said inductors may have tuning capabilities to optimize the pulse shape; wherein, resistors may be connected to the pulse forming networks to improve the pulse shape; wherein, said pulse forming networks may incorporate circuits consisting of resistors, capacitors, diodes and metal oxide varistors that will protect the pulse forming networks and the load from current or voltage reversals associated with open or short circuit fault conditions; wherein, said energy storage capacitors may be constructed from a variety of materials, including, but not limited to, ceramics, paper and metal film, polypropylene and metal film, or metallized polypropylene “self healing” designs.
 3. The device of claim 1, wherein a plurality of pulse forming networks of claim 2 can be connected in parallel to accommodate improved pulse shape, a broader range of impedances, or a broader range of current, di/dt, and energy transfer capabilities.
 4. The device of claim 1, wherein said pulse forming networks of claim 2 may employ tapered characteristic impedances to better match some dynamic loads.
 5. The device of claim 1, wherein said electrostatic energy storage elements associated with each Marx stage are comprised of discrete transmission lines.
 6. The device of claim 1, wherein a plurality of Marx generators may be connected in parallel to accommodate a broader range of impedances, or a broader range of current, di/dt, and energy transfer capabilities.
 7. The device of claim 1, wherein said semiconductor switches are comprised of: a bulk semiconductor material with two ohmic contacts; wherein, said bulk semiconductor material may be a variety of materials including, but not limited to, Ga-As, Silicon, Silicon Carbide, etc.; a multi-layered semiconductor material with two external ohmic contacts; wherein, said multi-layered semiconductor material may be a variety of materials including, but not limited to, Ga-As, Silicon, Silicon Carbide, etc.; wherein, said multi-layered semiconductor material may be configured in a variety of ways including, but not limited to, thyristor architectures; wherein, said multi-layered semiconductor switches may be symmetric; wherein, said multi-layered semiconductor switches may be asymmetric.
 8. The device of claim 1, wherein said semiconductor switches associated with each Marx stage are connected in a variety of configurations to improve performance; Said switches are connected in series to increase the voltage holdoff capability of individual Marx voltage multiplication stages; Said switches are connected in parallel to increase the energy transfer, current amplitude and time derivative capabilities of the pulse generator; Said switches are connected in a series/parallel configuration to simultaneously increase the voltage, current, energy transfer, and di/dt capabilities of the pulse generator; Voltage divider and snubber networks may be incorporated to provide static and dynamic voltage division of said series, parallel, or series/parallel connected switches.
 9. The device of claim 1, wherein saturable magnetic materials are installed in series with the optical switches to enhance current and di/dt capabilities.
 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the means of activating said semiconductor switches is a plurality of photon sources comprised of: a plurality of lasers that supply photons to said semiconductor switches; a plurality of lasers that provide redundant photon triggers to said semiconductor switches; a plurality of laser diodes that supply photons to said semiconductor switches; a plurality of barrier discharge devices or other monochromatic or polychromatic photon producing devices.
 11. The device of claim 1, wherein said photon sources may produce photons for a period of time less than, equal to, or more than the pulse duration; wherein, said photons produce all of the charge carriers necessary to conduct the entire current pulse; wherein, said photons produce a quantity of charge carriers sufficient to initiate current conduction in multi-layer semiconductor switches and trigger the self generation of further charge carriers necessary to conduct the remaining current pulse.
 12. The device of claim 1, wherein the means of delivering said photons to said semiconductor switches is a plurality of fiber optic cables that illuminate the semiconductor switches from one or more geometric positions.
 13. The device of claim 1, wherein the means of delivering said photons to said semiconductor switches is a plurality of laser diodes that directly illuminate the semiconductor switches from a plurality of edges, or from a plurality of sides.
 14. The device of claim 1, wherein the photon sources are comprised of a plurality of laser diodes integrated into the electrodes or mounting structure of said semiconductor switches, wherein the photons illuminate the semiconductor switches from one or more geometric positions.
 15. The device of claim 1, wherein the photon sources are comprised of laser diodes mounted external to said semiconductor switches and coupled to said semiconductor switches by fiber optic cables wherein the photons illuminate the semiconductor switches from one or more geometric positions.
 16. The device of claim 1, wherein said photons are delivered to, and illuminate all of said semiconductor switches simultaneously.
 17. The device of claim 1, wherein the photons are delivered to, and illuminate each of said semiconductor switches sequentially.
 18. The device of claim 1, wherein the pulse shape can be modified by installing additional circuits comprised of: a plurality of capacitors and inductors at the terminus of the Marx; a plurality of capacitors, inductors, resistors and switches at the input of the Marx; a magnetic switch at the terminus of the Marx; a peaking circuit comprised of capacitors and a high voltage switch at the terminus of the Marx; a plurality of inductors, resistors and possibly switches at each of the Marx stage capacitors.
 19. The device of claim 1, wherein said charging is accomplished through isolation elements comprised of inductors, resistors, diodes, active semi-conductor switches, photon initiated switches, or any combination thereof.
 20. The device of claim 1, wherein said electrostatic energy storage elements may be charged in either unipolar or bipolar configurations. 